Are People Inherently Honest? Essay

There are numerous theories that attempt to explain the motivation behind people acting in certain ways. This paper will address three of these theories, apply these theories to how people choose to behave honestly or dishonestly, and will attempt to determine whether or not people are inherently honest. Before looking into the motivation behind people’s decision to be honest, it is important to define some key terms in order to fully understand and explore what it means to be inherently honest. Merriam-Webster defines honest as â€Å"free from fraud or deception,† or simply put, truthful. It defines inherent as â€Å"belonging by nature or habit. † The majority of people simply associate something being inherent as ‘natural’ or ‘innate’. Interestingly, this definition expands our view on what one may consider ‘inherent’ by noting how past habits can also play a vital role in how one behaves. Now that we have defined what honesty and inherent behaviour entails, we can now look at the various theories that attempt to identify the motivation behind people behaving honestly. One of these theories is the fact that humans choose to act honestly or not based on what we feel is ‘morally good’ or the ‘right thing to do’ according to a very personal set of rules and morals. An individual’s behaviours are heavily influenced in order to satisfy this individual set of rules. Of course, there are a number of positions one can take on when defining this set of rules. Deontologists would argue that one should be honest one hundred percent of the time, regardless of the situation. They believe that it is ones’ moral obligation to behave honestly and have a duty of adhering to this universal rule. On the other hand, utilitarianism claims that the decision to act honestly or dishonestly varies depending on the situation, considering all costs, benefits, and consequences that will result from the behaviour. Regardless of the person’s moral standpoint, their choice to behave honestly or not is strongly influenced by their personal, or inherent, set of behaviours that they consider morally ‘right’. This supports the argument that people are in fact inherently honest. Another theory that attempts to explain the motivation behind behaving honestly is focused on the consequences that will result from behaving honestly or dishonestly. Uri Gneezy’s paper on the role of consequences in lying looks at how different benefits and costs influence one’s decision to behave honestly or dishonestly. From his studies, he comes to a number of conclusions describing how people conduct a cost-benefit analysis when deciding to lie or not. First, he finds that people are particularly sensitive to their personal gain when deciding to lie, meaning that they place a high priority on personal gain in their cost-benefit analysis. He also finds that people also tend to lie less when the lie harms another party. However, this harm plays less of a role in choosing not to lie compared to the increased gains from lying. This suggests that the marginal personal gain from a lie is greater than the marginal harm that is caused from the lie. Because people are constantly trying to maximize their personal utility, these findings display how one will behave dishonestly when doing so maximizes their utility. This suggests that people do not inherently behave honestly, but rather behave in a way that will create the most personal gain. A third theory that explains how people behave is based on the image that is associated with behaving honestly or dishonestly, as well as the use of excuses to justify dishonesty. There tends to be a negative stigma attached with lying; therefore, people are inclined to be honest simply to maintain a positive image of themself. There are a number of ways to look at this. First, people have a natural desire to see themselves in a positive light and like to feel that they are doing what is right. Much of this plays into the previously discussed individual set of morals that people have and doing what they consider ‘morally right’. However, there are cases when people create excuses to justify to themselves that acting dishonestly is the right thing to do. For example, if a man lies by telling his pregnant wife that she doesn’t look overweight, he will justify this lie to himself by claiming that he doesn’t want to hurt her feelings, maintaining a positive image of himself. In addition, people will tend to lie less to avoid making a bad impression to others. Similarly to above, people may use excuses to justify acting dishonestly, simply to maintain their positive impression on others. This shows that in order to maintain a positive impression of oneself on oneself as well as on others, people are inclined to behave honestly and are willing to make excuses to justify acting dishonestly to maintain this impression. This suggests that due to the natural desire to create and maintain a positive impression, people are inherently honest. The above theories and discussion suggest both that people are and are not inherently honest. This is precisely why many social scientists have difficulty in this area. On one hand, people behave honestly to satisfy their personal set of morals and to promote a positive image of themselves (in their own as well as others’ eyes), but are willing to be dishonest if it results in enough personal gain to justify the lie. From this, we conclude that one cannot make an overarching statement claiming that people are or are not inherently honest. Whether a person is inherently honest depends on how they weigh and balance the importance of their morals, personal gain, their self-image, and the image they want to portray to others.

John Stuart Mill Essay

Utilitarianism is a moral theory generally considered to have been founded by Jeremy Bentham, a 19th century English philosopher and social reformer. It is centered on the concept of happiness, and those who seek it. The idea is that all people seek happiness, and that it is the ultimate goal of all human beings to be happy. Therefore, according to classical utilitarianism, when a person wishes to act in an ethically sound manner he or she should strive to bring about the greatest possible amount of happiness for the greatest possible amount of people. This is known as the greatest happiness attitude. Another, similar idea is that a person should always strive, if incapable of producing happiness, to reduce unhappiness. As the theory is wholly focused on the outcome of a person’s actions, it is classed as a â€Å"consequentialist† theory, i. e. a theory that concerns it with consequences and not actions in themselves. Utilitarianism can be seen as a highly mathematical theorem, looking at the total units of happiness that a particular action gives rise to. For instance, I might want to go out and have drinks with some friends and my boyfriend or I could find something more family oriented and do something fun with my son and my boyfriend. Consider that my son is only little for a short time, would I rather have drinks and regret the hang over later or share a memory with my little boy. Taking my son out for a night might add 10 units of happiness to the world’s total stock, whereas going out for drinks would only add a total of 6. Certainly, the latter would make a greater quantity of people happy (the former only benefiting one person), but it is the quantity of happiness produced that is of the first importance to utilitarianists. But let us look more closely at Bentham’s utilitarianism. To understand his approach more fully, it is vital that one come to an appreciation of exactly what he meant by â€Å"happiness†. His ideas here are, really, quite simple. Bentham thought that we should look at happiness as being based on pleasure. Naturally, it follows from this that he also felt that we should treat unhappiness as something consisting of pain. This view on happiness has led his particular brand of utilitarianism to be seen as a hedonistic theory. Furthermore, Bentham did not distinguish between different forms of pleasure. To him, anything that gave rise to happiness – be it drugs or reading – was fundamentally good. Other philosophers have striven to develop Bentham’s theories further. One of the more notable of these is John Stuart Mill, who sought to distinguish between what he termed â€Å"higher† and â€Å"lower† pleasures. Mill disagreed with Bentham’s all-inclusive view on pleasure, feeling that there was a fundamental difference between the varying forms of pleasure available to people, and that some had a finer quality than others. It was Mill who put forth the notion that it is â€Å"better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied†. Mill’s idea was fairly straightforward, namely that while there are many simple, sensual pleasures in life, such as eating or drinking, there are also certain pleasures which are of a more cerebral nature, such as listening to classical music or reading poetry. According to Mill, these latter pleasures are of a greater quality, and should therefore be considered more important. He posited that someone who has experienced both forms of pleasure would naturally feel inclined to choose the higher pleasures. For instance, a man who is familiar with both tasty food and good poetry would view the latter as something more valuable than the former. This is a fairly straightforward exploration of the most common forms of utilitarianism. The most important thing to remember about these theories is that they are consequentialist and, above all else, that they are concerned with the greater good. Utilitarianists don’t care about your personal agenda or whether your actions happen to hurt some people. As long as the eventual results of your actions lead to more pleasure than pain, you’re in the clear. There were a number of things Mill did to change Utilitarianism. Mill said: â€Å"Better to be a human dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be a Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. † Mill also linked Utilitarianism with Christian morality. He connected the theory with the teachings of Jesus. He said that the ‘ideal perfection of utilitarian morality’ was abiding by the ‘Golden Rule’-‘Do onto others as you have them do to you. ’ This made many more people accept Utilitarianism as it linked with their religion. Rules were introduced into Utilitarianism by Mill. The rules introduced were ones that generally brought about the greatest happiness for the greatest number. For example, Mill argued that society needs the principal of truthfulness as it brings the most happiness on the long run. Utilitarianism is a theory that Christians can relate to. Mill brought it closer to the Christian church by introducing Rule Utilitarianism. This would be closer to the principals Jesus lived by. For example, it was against the Jewish law to work on the Sabbath but when people were in need, Jesus bent this rule and healed them. The largest connection Christianity has with Utilitarianism is the death of Jesus. He was crucified and died for the sins of mankind-sacrificing himself for the majority. However, Utilitarianism does accept evil where Christianity most certainly does not.

Biochemical Action of Bacteria

OBJECTIVE: 1. To distinguish the bacteria abilities to metabolize various substrates and end products formed. 2. To observe the growth of different bacteria species in term of structures and its morphology based on different chemical substance applied. 3. To observe physiological and immunological properties utilized by different species of bacteria. INTRODUCTION: Bacteria biochemical testing can determine the types and numbers in terms of colony forming units of bacteria present in a sample of different chemical. The testing could be focused on a specific type of bacteria, medical bacteria or a broad range of environmental bacteria.Since bacteria are present in virtually any environment, it’s important to be clear why the testing is being performed. The more specific the testing is the better and the easier it is to interpret the results. Numbers and types of bacteria that should be a cause for concern depends upon several factors, including the type of bacteria present and t he type of samples. Escherichia coli  are one of the main species of bacteria living in the lower intestines of mammals. E. coli  can be found in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals. The presence of  E. coli  in foods is considered to be an indication of fecal contamination.Staphylococcus  organisms are commonly found in the environment. Several species of  Staphylococcus  are found on the skin, intestines, nasal passages, etc. of warm-blooded animals. Some species of  Staphylococcus, particularly  Staphylococcus aureus  can be pathogenic are capable of causing illness. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is widely distributed in soil, water and plants. It survives in hot tubs, whirlpools, contact lens solution, sinks and showers. It can cause a number of opportunistic infections including infections of the skin, external ear canal and of the eye.Nitrifying bacteria recycle organic nitrogenous materials from ammonium (the endpoint for the decomposition of proteins) t o nitrates. Their presence can indicate that the water may have been polluted by nitrogen-rich organics from sources such as compromised septic tanks, sewage systems, industrial and hazardous waste sites and is undergoing an aerobic form of degradation. The presence of denitrifying bacteria can indicate that the water has been polluted by nitrogen-rich organics from sources such as compromised septic tanks, sewage systems, industrial and hazardous waste sites. MATERIALS: 1. Nutrient broth cultures of Escherichia coli . Nutrient broth cultures of Serratia marcescens 3. Nutrient broth cultures of Salmonella typhimurium 4. Nutrient broth cultures of Bacillus subtilis 5. Nutrient broth cultures of Klebsiella spp. 6. Nutrient broth cultures of Streptococcus spp. 7. Nutrient broth cultures of Staphylococcus aurieus 8. Nutrient broth cultures of Proteus vulgaris 9. Nutrient broth cultures of Pseudomonas fluorescens 10. Parafilm tape 11. Inoculating loops 12. Gloves 13. Incubator 14. Nutrie nt agar plate 15. Nutrient agar slants 16. Starch agar plates 17. Gelatine agar plates 18. 2 tubes Clark’s-Lub medium (MR-VP medium) 19. Tryptone broth 20. 3 Kigler’ slant 21. 5 tubes nitrate broth ( 0. 1% KNO3) 22. 5 urea broth 23. Tube containing 10ml of sterile saline 24. Glucose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 25. Lactose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 26. Sucrose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 27. Gram’s iodine 28. Kovac’s indol reagent 29. Mercuric chloride solution 30. KOH-creatine solution or 40% KOH 31. F&R reagent 32. Nessler’s reagent PROCEDURE: A. CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM 1. Fermentation of sugars Materials: 1. Glucose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 2.Lactose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 3. Sucrose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 4. 18 hour nutrient broth cultures of E. coli and S. typhimurium Procedure: 1) The small bottles of different sugars were inoculated with a loopfuls of E. coli and Salmonella spp. 2) The tubes were labelled and incubate at 37oC for 24 hours 3) All observations were recorded for presence of acid or gas production. 2. Hydrolysis of starch Materials: 1. Starch agar plates 2. Broth agar cultures of B. subtilis and E. coli Procedure: 1) Starch plate was streaked with E. coli in for sections and repeated for B. ubtilis bacteria in other starch plate. 2) The plates were secured with parafilm, labelled and inoculated at 37oC for 24 hours. The following day 1) The plates were tested for starch hydrolysis by flooding the pates with Gram’s iodine. 2) The plates were examined and the colonies that showed clear uncoloured zones in contrast with the blue-black background of the starch-iodine complex were noted. 3) The extent of the zones of hydrolysis indicated either the reddish colour zones were seen. 4) All results and observations were recorded. B. PROTEIN AND AMINO ACID METABOLIM 1. Indole test Materials: 1. Broth cultures of B. ubtilis, E. coli, and S. typhimurium 2. 3 tubes of tryptone broth 3. Kovac’s indole test reagent Procedures: 1) The peptone water was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were added with a few drops of Kovac’s indole reagent (dimethylaminobenzaldehyde) 2) The red or dark color indicates the presence of indole. 4. Hydrogen sulphide Materials: 1. Broth cultures of B. subtilis, E. coli, and S. typhimurium 2. 3 Kigler’s slant Procedures: 1) The Kigler’s slant was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism by the stab method. ) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 3) The Kigler’ slant was observed for production of H2S where the black precipitate along the line of growth in the Kigler’s slants indicated the H2S have been produced. 4) The observations were recorded. 3 . Gelatine hydrolysis test Materials: 1. Broth cultures of B. subtilis, E. coli, and S. typhimurium 2. Gelatine agar plates 3. Mercuric chloride solution Procedures: 3) The gelatine agar plates were inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism with a single streak at the centre of the plates. ) The plates were secured with parafilm, labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 5) The plates were flooded with mercuric chloride solution. 6) The medium become opaque in regions that still contain gelatine and clear regions where gelatine has been hydrolysed. C. VOGES-PROSKAUER TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of E. coli, and Klebsiella spp. 2. 2 tubes of Clark-Lub’s medium (MR-VP medium) 3. KOH-creatine solution Procedures: 1) The tubes of Clark-Lub’s medium (MR-VP medium) were inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tubes were labelled and incubated for 24 hours.The following day 1) The tubes were tested with Voges-Proskauer test. 2) The 0. 5 ml of KOH-creatine solutuin was addd. 3) The tube was shaked vigorously for 30 seconds. 4) The red or pink color indicates the presence of acetoin. D. CATALASE TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of Streptococcus spp. and Staphylococcus aureus. 2. Nutrient agar slant Procedures: 1) The nutrient agar slant was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were tested with catalase test by adding several drops of a 5% solution of hydrogen peroxide. ) The vigorous bubbling indicates the presence of oxygen. E. NITRATE REDUCTION TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of E. coli, Proteus vugaris, Serratia marcescens, Pseudomonas fluorescens. 2. 5 tubes containing nitrate broth (0. 1% KNO3) 3. Nitrate test reagent Procedures: 1) The nitrate broth was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were tested with 1ml of Follet and Ratcliff’s (F&R reagent) 2) The orange or brown color indicates the presence of nitrate. 3) The absent of nitrate indicates that: a.There has been no nitrate reduction b. The reduction has proceeded beyond that nitrate stage. 4) The absent of orange or brown color were further tested with small amount of cadmium to the tube. If nitrate still present, it will be catalytically change to nitrate which will then reacts with the F&R reagent in the tube. 5) In the absent of a positive nitrate result, the bubbles f H2 gas was observed in the Durhams tube OR 6) The samples were tested with 1ml of Nessler’s reagent. The brown or orange color indicates the presence of ammonia. F. UREASE TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of E. coli, P. vugaris, S. arcescens, P. fluorescens. 2. 5 urea broth with indicator Procedures: 1) The urea broth was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The urease-posit ive organism produced in intense red/purple coloration of the medium after incubation. 2) All observations were recorded. RESULTS AND OBSERVATION: Test| Observation(After 24 hours incubation)| Description| A. Carbohydrate Test 1. Fermentation of starchDurham tubes and phenol-red indicator. 2. Hydrolysis of starch| Glucose: Lactose: Sucrose: Starch agar plates:B. ubtilisE. coli| * Positive result for E. coli as tube turn yellow * Positive result for S. typhimium as tube turn yellow * Positive result for E. coli as tube turn yellow * No gas produced by S. typhimium because the tube turns red. * No gas produced by E. coli because the tube is slightly red. * Positive result for S. typhimium as tube turn yellow * Positive zone of clearing. * Negative zone of clearing. | B. Protein And Amino Acid Metabolism 1. Indole test 2. Hydrogen disulphide 3. Gelatine hydrolysis test| Tryptone broth:B. subtilisE. coli. S. typhimuriumKigler’s slant:B. subtilisE. oli. S. typhimuriumGelatine agar plates:B. subtilisE. coli. S. typhimurium| * Negative Indole tests no color change. * Bright fuschia at the interface is positive test for Indole. * Negative Indole tests no color change. * Black precipitate form shows positive sulphur reduction. * Negative reaction. * Positive reaction forming the black precipitate. * Positive hydrolysis of gelatine into amino acid to be used as nutrients/gelatinase. * Negative hydrolysis of gelatine. * Negative hydrolysis of gelatine| C. Voges- Proskaeur’s Test| MR-VP medium:E. coli. Klebsiella spp. | * Negative results of E. oli * Positive results Klebsiella spp. | D. Catalase Test| Nutrient agar slant:S. aureusStreptococcus spp. | S. aureus * Positive catalase reaction because present of bubblesStreptococcus spp. * Negative catalase reaction no bubbles present. | E. Nitrate Reduction Test| Nitrate broth:E. coliP. vulgarisS. marcescensP. fluorenscens| * No color change after denitrification of ammonia. * No color change after denitrificat ion of ammonia. * Turns red. Positive nitrate test shows nitrate reductase present. * Turns red but negative catalase test. | F. Urease Test| Urea broth:E. coliP. vulgarisS. marcescensP. luorenscens| * Negative urease test because the tube remain purple. * P. vulgaris show positive urease test from yellow to pinkish. * S. marcescens show negative urease test because the color remain purple. * P. fluorenscens show negative urease test because the color remain purple. | DISCUSSION: Biochemical tests of bacteria oobjectively to test the metabolism of carbohydrate and related products of different bacteria species, test specific breakdown of products through color changes and gas produced. Besides that, the ability of bacteria utilizes a specific substance and the metabolism of protein and amino acid by bacteria.A. CARBOHYDRATE TEST Carbohydrate is an organic compound that consists of only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen which is basically the major carbon source of most organisms. Specific carbohydrate can be fermented by organism that incorporated in a medium producing red or acid with gas. Pinkish red color shows positive results where acidic content formed in the tube because carbon dioxide realised if fermentation occur. Negative catabolism of carbohydrate shows by yellow to colourless of Durham’s tube as the solution remain alkaline in the absent of carbon dioxide gas.Gas production can be seen as bubbles in Durham’s tube. Central carbohydrate metabolism or the breakdown of sugars into smaller compounds accompanied by the production of ATP and reduction of coenzymes, follows one of several pathway. Carbohydrate utilization and fermentation will be assessed by growing cells without shaking (aeration) in defined media containing a single carbohydrate. Acid products of sugar fermentation will cause a noticeable color change in the pH indicator included in the medium.Sugar fermentation does not produce alkaline product, however non-fermentative hydroly sis of amino acids in the peptone, present in most fermentation media, may give an alkaline reaction, which will also cause a color change in the pH indicator. Gas production, H2 in particular, can be determined by placing a small, inverted Durham tube in the test medium. If gas is produced, it is trapped in the Durham tube and can be seen as a bubble. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is produced by bacterial anaerobic degradation of the two sulfur-containing amino acids, cysteine and methionine.Hydrogen sulfide is released as a by-product when carbon and nitrogen atoms in the amino acids are consumed as nutrients by the cells. Under anaerobic conditions the sulfhydryl (-SH) group on cysteine is reduced by cysteine desulfurase. Ferrous ammonium sulfate-indicator. H2S reacts with ferrous sulfate forming the black precipitate Sodium thiosulfate is reduced to sulphite/thiosulfate The Kligler's Iron test is used to detect liberation of H2S gas by bacteria growing on an excess of these sulfur-cont aining amino acids. The agar contains high levels of peptones or sources of cysteine and methionine and ferrous sulfate as an indicator.When H2S is produced, the ferrous ion reacts with it to give ferrous sulfide, an insoluble black precipitate. In starch hydrolysis test Iodine must be on the plate to visualize the zone of clearing surrounding the bacteria. This zone indicates starch was broken down to dextrins, maltose, and glucose. B. PROTEIN AND AMINO ACID METABOLIM Indole test measures the ability of bacteria to split indole from tryptophan molecule but in term of biochemistry, Indole test is one of the metabolic degradation products of the amino acid tryophan.Bacteria that possess the enzyme trytophanase are capable of hydrolysing and deaminating tryptophan with the production of Indole, pyruvic acid and ammonia. Positive reaction showed by E. coli, P. vulgaris and negative results observed in Klebsiella and Salmonella from observation in the Indole test. Development of fuchsia red color at the interface of the reagent and the broth within seconds after adding the reagent is indicative of the presence of Indole and is a positive test. Kovac’s reagent detects if tryptophan has been hydrolyzed to indol or tryptophanase.Gelatin is the protein derived from the animal protein collagen, has been used as a solidifying agent in food for a long time besides nutrient gelatine as an early type of solid growth medium. One problem is that many bacteria have the ability to hydrolyze or liquefy the gelatin. This gelatin liquefaction ability forms the basis for this test. C. VOGES-PROSKAUER TEST The production of acetoin by bacteria is perform through Voges Proskauer Test to determine the ability of the organisms to produce neutral end product acetyl methyl carbinol (acetoin) from glucose fermentation.Negative results gained from E. coli meanwhile positive reaction gives by. Changing of color to red pinkish color at the surface of the medium indicated positive res ults and yellow color at the surface of the medium show negative reaction. The KOH reagent should not be excessively added to the sample because excess KOH may mask weak VP positive reactions. The MR test will be positive for organisms that have complete pathways for mixed acid fermentation. The Voges-Proskauer (VP) test determines whether a specific neutral metabolic intermediate, acetoin, has been produced instead of acid from glucose.Acetoin is the last intermediate in the butanediol pathway, which is a common fermentation pathway in B. subtilis. The tests are complementary in the sense that often a bacterium will give a positive reaction for one test and a negative reaction for the other. The three possible patterns of results where the acetoin fermentation pathway, detected by the VP test, two molecules of pyruvate condense and two molecules of CO2 are released. The 4 carbon intermediate that is formed, acetoin, contains a carbonyl group. The acetoin acts as a terminal electron acceptor with the carbonyl group being reduced to a hydroxyl group.The reduced product, butanediol, is excreted by the bacteria and acetoin is oxidized to diacetyl by alkaline -naphthol, which forms a red complex with creatinine. D. CATALASE TEST Catalase is present in most cytochrome containing aerobic and facultative anaerobic bacteria except Streptococcus spp. Hydrogen peroxide forms as one of the oxidative end product of aerobic carbohydrate metabolism. If hydrogen peroxide allowed accumulating in the bacterial cells it becomes lethal to the bacteria. Catalases help in converting H2O2 to water and oxygen.In the catalase test performed, Streptococcus spp gives negative reaction as for S. aureus, the positive reaction occurred. One of the by-products of oxidation-reduction in the presence of O2 during aerobic respiration is hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). This compound is highly reactive and must be degraded in the cytoplasm of the cell producing it. It can be especially damaging to mo lecules of DNA. Most aerobes synthesize the enzyme catalase, which breaks down H2O2 into water and oxygen. The O2 gas is identified by the production of bubbles from a concentrated cell suspension.The test for catalase is simple and usually very reliable. It is a major method of distinguishing between Staphylococcus (catalase positive), Streptococcus (catalase negative), and Enterococcus (catalase negative), although some strains of Enterococcus faecalis may be positive. Catalase production is generally associated with aerobic organisms, since H2O2 is a toxic by-product of aerobic growth, but not always. E. NITRATE REDUCTION TEST Nitrate reduction test basically test the ability of organism to reduce the nitrate to nitrites of free nitrogen gas.In order to determine either the bacteria can reduce nitrate, the test organism is inoculated into nitrate reduction broth, undefined medium that contains large amounts of nitrate (KNO3). After incubation, reagent added simultaneously reacts with nitrite and turn to red color, indicating a positive nitrate reduction. If there is no color change at this step, nitrite is absent. If the nitrate is unreduced and till in its original form, this would be a negative nitrate reduction result. However it is possible that the nitrate was reduced to nitrite but has been further reduced to ammonia or nitrogen gas.This would be recorded as positive nitrate reduction result. Under anaerobic conditions, some bacteria are able to use nitrate (NO3-) as an external terminal electron acceptor. This kind of metabolism is analogous to the use of oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor by aerobic organisms and is called anaerobic respiration. Nitrate is an oxidized compound and there are several steps possible in its reduction. The initial step is the reduction of nitrate (NO3-) to nitrite (NO2-). Several possible products can be made from further reduction of nitrite. Possible reduced end products include the following N2, NH3 (ammonia), N2O (nitrous oxide).Bacteria vary in their ability to perform these reactions, a useful characteristic for identification. A medium that will support growth must be used and the cells must be grown anaerobically. Growth in the presence of oxygen will decrease or eliminate nitrate reduction. There are many possible end products of nitrate reduction such as nitrite, nitrogen gas (N2), nitrous oxides, ammonia, and hydroxylamine. The disappearance of nitrate or the appearance of the end products. The test relies on the production of nitrous acid from the nitrite. This, in turn, reacts with the iodide in the reagent to produce iodine.The iodine then reacts with the starch in the reagent to produce a blue color. Since some of the possible products of NO3- reduction are gaseous, a Durham tube is sometimes inverted in the culture tube to trap gases. This being the case, it is important to pre-test the medium to ensure no detectable nitrite is present at the beginning, and, in the case of a neg ative test, to reduce any nitrate to nitrite to determine whether the nitrite was also reduced. If nitrite is produced, it reacts with hemoglobin to give a bright red color, instead of the dark red color of hemoglobin.It is this reaction that is responsible for the color of meats, such as hot dogs, which are preserved with sodium nitrite. The blood agar test has the advantage of no color change occurring if the nitrite is further reduced. F. UREASE TEST Urease test mainly highlighted to determine the ability of the organism to split urea forming 2 molecules of ammonia by the action of the enzyme Urease with resulting alkalinity. Negative reaction shown by E. coli meanwhile Klebsiella spp. shows positive result. Extra precaution needed because both the urease test medium depend upon the demonstration of alkalinity that not specific for urease.Moreover the protein hydrolysis may result I alkalinity hence false positive may be seen in Pseudomonas. The false positivity can be eliminated by control test using the same medium without urea as recommendation. Urea is a nitrogenous waste product of animals. Some bacteria can cleaved it to produce carbon dioxide and ammonia. The ammonia is a nitrogen source for amino acid biosynthesis as well as for synthesis of other nitrogen-containing molecules in the cell. The urease test was devised to distinguish Proteus species from other enterics.The medium described here is buffered enough so that weak urease producers appear negative. The production of ammonia raises the pH of the medium. The indicator phenol red is present in the broth. Phenol red is orange-yellow at pH below than 6. 8, and turns bright pinkish-red at pH higher than 8. 1. Hence, a positive urea test is denoted by the change of medium color from yellow to pinkish red. CONCLUSION: Based on the laboratory, different bacteria species have different abilities to metabolize various substrates and end products formed were able to be observed and distinguished.

BUSINESS ECONOMICS COURSEWORK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

BUSINESS ECONOMICS COURSEWORK - Essay Example With cost-plus pricing, the firm can just increase the price. Price increase is possible due to the fact that at some point, the production costs of a product may not be clear in advance. This literally may have significant advantage in cases of supply contracts. Although cost-plus pricing strategy may have advantages, it also has remarkable drawbacks which include the following: ignoring the demand, image, and market positioning; favouring historical accounting costs rather than replacement value; applying standard output level to allocate fixed costs; offering few incentives for efficiency, as costs are passed off to customers; ignoring the role of customers and the value they drive; and creating a competitive disadvantage using average costs (Brickley, Smith & Zimmerman, 2009; BPP Learning Media, 2009, p.302; Holden & Burton, 2010). Perhaps, the most striking of all of these is on how the costs are clearly passed off to customers. Cost-plus pricing may therefore not that competitive in a marketplace where there are new entrants, especially those willing to compete with price by and lowering down their price offerings to generate a market share or acceptance. At some point, cost-plus pricing may trigger a less affinity (less demand) for a certain service or product offering in the long run as competition arises. Cost-plus pricing is a safer pricing strategy on the part of Bhagat Incorporated due to production costs that may not be clear beforehand. It is a natural practice that when a manufacturing company set the price of a good, the cost of labour is always taken into account (Brickley, Smith & Zimmerman, 2009; Krauss & Johnson, 2006, p.211; Campbell, 2003, p.167). Labour costs are categorised either direct or indirect (Sears, Sears & Clough, 2010, p.46). The indirect labour costs can be reduced (Appelbaum, 200, p151; Roderhorst, 2009, p.80). If Bhagat has so much increase in its indirect labour costs, then this could be

Methods of Analysis Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Methods of Analysis - Coursework Example These are the Government policies that are involved in the planning process for the cities in the transport sector. The Government is responsible for the construction of roads, subways and the development of policies of parking. The making of the city planning codes is also a political element (Drezner,1995). A combination of two methods of analysis is recommended since one method allows the establishments of the weight of the benefits in relation to the costs while the other applies the principle of opportunity cost allowing the application of the cheapest method. A public budget is a plan from the government which indicates the expected achievements from the allocation of resources to various institutions in the following fiscal year (12 months). The resources are obtained from the citizens in various ways such as taxes and licenses and also from internal and external borrowing. The funds are allocated according to various factors such as the population density, previous development procedures and availability of other resources for instance vehicles for the allocation of funds to construct road networks (Levy, 2013). The lack of a general agreement during the development of a public budgeting is due to the various opinions by the various members of the political class regarding the allocation of funds in certain areas while others feel unsatisfied (Drezner,

Education, in particular equality in education Essay

Education, in particular equality in education - Essay Example In one of his Lectures on education, Emerson declared that the whole theory of schooling and education is on the mother’s knee (1). A child learns to skate, fish, make snowballs and hit a mark with a stone. This is education, the same way learning the secrets of science, history and literature is. What is important is to respect the student and impart knowledge that catches a student’s attention and brings out the genius in him. However, education today is governed by the steam instead of meeting the needs of each individual mind. According to Freire’s Educational Theory, it is important for the teachers to recognize that the students are thinking subjects rather than objects (90). Therefore, it is not possible for information to be transferred from a teacher to the learner and simply memorized. This transference of knowledge needs to be shaped through discussions and reflections and comprehended for it to be called education. He also believed that a teacher should try Humans are members of not only the society they live in, but also the world. Every human being is linked to another and it is crucial for human beings to understand each other rather than focusing on what benefits they can derive from one another, especially in times of globalization where the world has become an interdependent global village. This understanding can be gained through Liberal Education as derived by Martha Nussbaum. Nussbaum, in her article ‘Liberal Education & Global Community’ wrote that the system of higher education in many countries focuses on a single pre-professional subject whereas, the liberal arts universities will cultivate humanity within students and allow them to deal with other humans through human understanding rather than economic and political connections (2-3). According to Armstrong, Doctor Howard Gardner proposed the

English law allows parties the utmost freedom to agree their own legal Essay

English law allows parties the utmost freedom to agree their own legal relations and liabilities without limitation and interrup - Essay Example This means that a salient factor that distinguishes contractual obligations from other forms of legal obligations is that contracts are premised upon agreements. Likewise, this is important since people can agree to exchange any goods and / or services, provided they are legit. Similarly, if the basic requirements of a contract have been met, then English law may not step in to curtail parties the utmost freedom to agree on their own legal relations and liabilities. Some of these essential requirements include the presence of offer and acceptance, consideration which supports the agreement, and an intention to create legal relations. The exception to this is when the modalities such as the Sales of Goods Act 1979, the Exclusion Clause and UCTA and implied terms therein as laid down to govern contracts have been violated. An exception that curtails the utmost freedom for parties to agree on their legal liabilities and relations without restrictions is the Exclusion Clause. This is bec ause the Exclusion Clause restricts or excludes the liability of one of the parties. Normally, it is the seller whose liability is restricted. However, it is important to note that the Exclusion Clause is not accorded blanket application so that wicked sellers can breach their initially agreed upon contractual obligations. On the contrary, the Exclusion Clause is applied in light of the contra proferentum rule. This can be seen in the case Wallis, Son & Wells v Pratt and Haynes. In this case, a seed sale contract clause argued that sellers did not give any implied or expressed warranties concerning the description of the seeds. The seeds were not found to match the description they had been previously given. In this effect, it was held that the clause was only applicable to the warranty and that the description being referred to was part of the conditions that made the contract. Particularly, the House of Lords ruled that there was no instance in which sellers are not to fulfill the ir warranty, whether this warranty is implied or direct. This is to the effect that any clause which does not explicitly detail conditions will normally not exclude liability for breach of conditions (House of Lords, 2012, p. 1). The crux of the matter above is that the circumstances which may compel the seller in the contract to apply to be absolved from the responsibilities or liabilities spelt out in the contract must have been caused by unforeseen circumstances (D. Ashcroft and J. Ashcroft, 2010, p. 66). Conversely, in this instance where unforeseen circumstances bedevil the business or the seller, the liability limitation may come into succour businesses which cannot afford to shoulder the burden on consequential and unforeseen losses that may threaten to subject a business to insolvency. Siems (2003, p. 35) explains further that the situation above was exemplified by the case British Fermentation Products Ltd v Compair Reavell Ltd [1999]. In this case, the British Fermentation Products Limited was the purchaser of a compressor of air supply under proper pressure to aerate and mix well, which was to help produce yeast. The supplier would be Compair Reavell Limited. The compressors failed to work well several times even after several replacements were delivered. Even though the amount of damages surpassed ? 1 million, Judge Bowsher Q.C.

Fixed and floating charges Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Fixed and floating charges - Essay Example However, on the other hand, companies often tend to offer such collaterals in order to gain relaxations in obtaining debt including reduction in the interest rates as well as margin requirements. Thus providing a security not only has a legal implication but also offer influence to creditors in controlling the future events. However, from the perspective of a firm, the nature and impact of providing assets of the firm as security carry different significance and as such depends largely upon the credit worthiness of the firm. Better a firm has a creditworthiness chances are that the firm will be able to get larger concessions in providing assets as security.2 It is however critical to note that from legal perspectives, the claim or charge of creditors on the assets of the company are created through different charges created over the assets of the firm with relevant regulatory authorities. These charges can be of either floating nature or of fixed nature depending upon the nature of the mutual agreement between both the parties. It is however also important to understand that the significance of floating and fixed charge to both creditors and the firm may be different again depending upon the nature of agreement made between both the parties. There are generally two sources of funds for an organization i.e. equity contribution made by the shareholders of the firm and the funds acquired from external sources such as bank loans and bond issues. Equity issues or equity contribution is the most risky investment because it is clean i.e. shareholders are offered no guarantee or security that their investment will be paid back and as such shareholders have the least claims against the assets of the company in case of its liquidation because all the claims of company’s creditors are settled first and remaining is distributed to the shareholders. On the other hand, debts obtained from various sources such as banks and capital markets are less risky as compared to

Implementation of an Industrial Hygiene Program Research Paper

Implementation of an Industrial Hygiene Program - Research Paper Example This essay will provide a hygiene program for pharmaceuticals with a focus on handling of hazardous chemicals and other raw materials for the manufacture or research and development of drugs. R&D and work areas for pharmaceuticals are one of the most dangerous places for operators and workers, if these are not adequately designed and control systems are not properly in place. Providing a hygiene system for pharmaceutical laboratories is therefore a challenging task. Pharmaceuticals produce small groups of high-potency active ingredients. These compounds pose risks to persons who are involved in the manufacturing. The chemicals are potentially toxic, can cause cancer, â€Å"teratogenic, mutagenic,† and are really dangerous even in small amounts (Fay & Phillips, 2002). In controlling chemicals, there must be a protective barrier between the chemical and the person handling the chemical. There are acceptable working conditions in the handling of chemicals, for example pharmaceutical ingredients, agricultural chemicals particularly herbicides and pesticides, dyes and pigments, and other chemicals such as radioisotopes and intermediates. In the development of procedures and equipment to protect persons handling the chemicals, there are two steps that should be followed. First, there must be a method of control. Second, how to attain the methods and how to attain them must be formulated. Analytical chemistry is used in determining smaller quantities and this can be attained through new computer applications or software. The company should provide an effective design and layout of the work area that is conducive to a clean and effective work environment. Designated areas for hazardous chemicals have to be clearly separate from other rooms designated for offices. Proper handling of materials should be the order of the day. Training of personnel who will handle sensitive materials and chemicals should be a part of the procedures. Training should be conducted by

The Lost Man Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Lost Man - Essay Example In the 2011 movie, Adrien Brody has the main role with other cast members being Caroline Dharvernas, Ryan Robins and Adrian Griffiths. The movie plot has been directed in such a way that it invokes certain emotions; this is evidence through the flow of the movie to the end. As much as the movie starts with a general feeling of loneliness a sense of motivation is evident as Brody in the films struggles to get back on his feet. The movie plot has been devised in such a way that the mystery has been brought in the beginning of the film. With this having been done, the movie then grasps the attention of the audience as one is left to wonder what happened. The movie begins with an injured man; Adrien Brody who has no idea how he came to be in this particular place as he awakes from a car wreck with an almost shut eye from injury. The feeling from this first shot of the movie is very sad; the setting is in a forest far from civilization with a man that requires medical attention. The feeli ng of sadness is then hyphened by the discovery that the area his man is trapped in is full of wild animals and his life is most likely in danger. The feature that is most evident in the beginning of the movie is the mystery which can be seen through most of the films beginning. This aspect is also evident from the fact that there is a dead man besides him. He appears to be oblivious of the dead man as he seems to be amnesic from the accident. The feeling of dedication and motivation is evident throughout the movie as the man who does not even know who he is and how he appeared in this place is dedicated to get back in his feet and return to whatever place he belongs. He befriends a dog somewhere in the movie; this depicts the loneliness that he was experiencing. Loneliness is evident as in parts of the movie he is alone and he wishes there was someone around that could help him figure out how he came to that place and offer him a solution on how he could get back home. In one of th e scenes, the man talks to the dog and tells him that he used to have a dog named duke. This illustrates the loneliness that the man experiences while in the forest. The man is dedicated as he struggles and manages to get out of the car where one of his legs was stuck. He ties his leg with some sticks and sets off to figure out what has happened to him. Through the rhythm of the movie from the beginning to the end, there are revelations of the man’s life and this has been depicted in such a way that it unfolds what had previously taken place before the man came to this place. The man keeps having delusions of this girl that appears to him in this place. Through the rhythm the story flow establishes in the end that this girl that appears to him by his flashback where he was in a bank robbery and the girl is actually his girlfriend. The overall emotion that can said to have prevailed in the movie is loneliness, though the man has no memories of how he came to be in this place, he has memories of people that he wishes were around him at this time. The point and climax of the movie is then brought forth in the movie in a dramatic way that most movie critics said that it was breathtaking. At the end of the movie when the man is rescues, he asks the police to take the dog with him. The police inform the man that he had no dog, at this point, the audience gets to realize that the man was going through delusions the whole time that he

Learning objectives of the student Essay Example for Free

Learning objectives of the student Essay By the end of the grant period, the learners should be able to: †¢ Internalize the basic definitions of concepts which will be met during the study. †¢ Use the various methods of measuring techniques to find measurements of simple lengths. †¢ Use the measurement tools effectively in class and outside the classroom. †¢ Demonstrate on the board on the use of the various tools in measuring. †¢ Apply the knowledge learned in class in real life situation i. e. giving the students a challenging life application question and finding out if they can get the answers correctly. Method of Instruction: Teacher may adopt the instruction led method to disseminate information to the learners by use of segments of information and presenting the idea systematically. Teacher can adopt use of the demonstration method where the learner follows in detail how a particular procedure or technique is being followed. The lecture method is also a common instructional method which can be used by the teacher. This involves the teacher gives monologue information without getting responses from the learners. The teacher can use the coaching instruction for the learner. This refers to a detailed step in which the learner is taken through so that he can grasp the concept. The students can also be left on their own to practice what has been learned in class, thus the practice method is another instructional method to be used in the classroom. Reference: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics Retrieved o

Network Case Study Essay Example for Free

Network Case Study Essay 1. Which of the following is true about a TCP/IP network? A) The network uses only standards defined in TCP/IP RFCs. 2. Which of the following terms is not a common synonym for TCP/IP model? (Choose two answers.) D) TCP/IP mapping and C) Ethernet 3. Think generically about the idea of a networking standard, ignoring any particular standard or standards group. Which of the following is typically true of a standard? (Choose two answers.) B) It exists as a deployed network device, which people can visit on the Internet. C) It has been passed through some form of review and approval or certification process. 4. Contrast an international standard as compared to a de facto standard. (Choose two answers.) B) International standard documents have been reviewed more thoroughly. D) International standards typically mean that the standards group has been authorized by many countries to create standards that apply to multiple countries. 5. Which of the following are true about the commonly used version of the TCP/IP model as shown in this chapter? (Choose two answers.) C) The physical layer sits just below the data link layer. D). The network layer sits in the middle of the five layers. 6. The TCP/IP model refers to standards other than those the IETF defines in RFCs. Which of these standards groups is typically the source of external LAN standards? (Choose two answers.) A) ITU B) IEEE 7. Which of the following is not a typical reason for a group of ten companies to start a vendor group, for the purpose of pushing a new networking technology? C) To improve the chances that the technology will be standardized 8. The TCP/IP and OSI models have some obvious differences, like the number of layers. Think about the more commonly used version of the TCP/IP model discussed in this chapter, and then think about how to talk about TCP/IP using OSI terms. Which of the following is a correctly phrased statement for how to use OSI terminology? B) IP is a network layer protocol. 9. Historically, which of the following models were the earliest models used in corporate networks? A) Vendor models 10. Which of the following statements is true when comparing the OSI and the TCP/IP mode l as defined in RFC 1122? B) The lower four layers of TCP/IP define the same kinds of functions as the matching layer numbers from OSI. 11. A network engineer connects two PCs (PC1 and PC2) using Ethernet NICs and an Ethernet cable that has copper wires inside. The two PCs communicate successfully. Which of  the following happens when PC1 sends bits to PC2? D)PC1 converts the bits to sound waves, and the NIC uses an A/D converter to send the data over the cable. 12. A TCP/IP network includes an Ethernet LAN with 10 PCs uses a LAN switch. PC1 sends data intended for an app running on PC2. Which of the following mechanisms does Ethernet define so that PC2 receives and processes the data? A)The Ethernet header lists PC2’s MAC address so that PC2 will realize that the data is meant for PC2. 13. Two network pros are having a conversation about some issues in a network. They discuss some issues related to how PPP forwards data, so they happen to be discussing the data structure that includes the PPP header and trailer. Which of the following terms do they use? B) Packet 14. Which of the following are true facts about IP addresses? (Choose two answers.) C) Are listed in the data-link trailer D) Used by routers to make a forwarding decision 15. Which of the following answers is true about Ethernet MAC addresses? A) 48 bits in length C) Are listed in the data-link trailer 16. Which of the following statements is true comparing LANs and WANs? (Choose two answers.) A) LANs generally connect devices that are nearer to each other, compared to WANs. D) LANs are purchased, and WANs are leased. 17. Which of the following answers list true facts about the data link layer of TCP/IP? (Choose two answers.) B) Two TCP/IP data-link protocols are Ethernet and PPP. C) Data-link protocols define addresses that identify devices connected to the underlying physical link. 18. Which of the following answers list true facts about the network layer of TCP/IP? (Choose two answers.) B) The two primary protocols are TCP and IP. C) IP provides logical addressing and routing ser vices 19. Which of the following answers lists true facts about the transport layer of TCP/IP? B) The two primary protocol options are TCP and IP. C) TCP provides error recovery services to application layer protocols that use TCP. 20. A PC user opens a web browser and sends a request to a web server to load a new web page. Three routers forward the data as it passes from client to server. Consider the data plus all headers and trailers that go from the web client to the web server. Which of the following headers go all the way from the web client to the web server? (Choose three answers.) A)Data-link header B) Network layer header C) Transport layer header

Case Study Of The Unhealthy Hospital

Case Study Of The Unhealthy Hospital A seminal 1963 article has been credited for giving rise to the concept of health economics, and its establishment as a discipline. It focuses on issues that are related to scarcity in the allocation of health and health care. Amid growing concerns for health care and global health reform it has been recognized that health finances are finite, a view substantiated by Basch (1999), and that neither developed nor developing countries are immune to the scarcity of resources that plagues our health care system. Levine (2005) argues that the problems in health care systems have been hampered by chronic financing shortfalls, compounded by weak management and crippled by rigid budgeting. Against this backdrop the case of Bruce Hudson, Seven Seas Memorial Hospital is not so farfetched. Robert et al. (2004), underwriters of many health policies in developing countries, put forward the argument that the elements of any form of systematic policy cycle, first seeks to define the problem, form a diagnosis to policy development, political decision making, implementation and evaluation. From the given case study it is clearly identified that the operating policies need to be revised, a decision needs to be made on how the new operating policies will be developed, how much political influence will be incorporated into it and how will these policies be evaluated. With the ever increasing demand for improved efficiency in the health care sector there has been the ever increasing need to revise and change hospital structures. That has included the use of strategies such as mergers and downsizing, as modifications are made to cut down on expenditure. The difficulties of Bruce Hudson, in the given scenario, are not unlike the challenges that Hospital administrators face in developing countries. They grapple with limited finances and are often faced with the difficult decision of restructuring staff. Fulop et al. (2002) and Braithwaite et al. (2005) argue that in such cases as administrators seek to contain cost and cut down on over heads, there is increased emphasis on redefining job roles to ensure the delivery of health care in a more cost effective way. They go on to argue that there is very little evidence to suggest that restructuring actually improves efficiency or programme outcomes. Hospital administrators face the difficult task of how to restructure and not affect quality. It is recognized that nurses are the largest component of the health care workforce and as a direct result they would be the largest operating expenditure. Attempts to cut back on labour costs could mean a cut back on the number of nurses operating within the facility. While the case study goes on to note that Mr. Hudson is not new to effectively running an operation with less than the current number of staff at Seven Seas Memorial Hospital, Kearin et al. (2006) cites in their work the view of Akien et al. (2002) who put forward the view that patient outcomes are linked to appropriate nurse-patient ratios and the proportion of registered nurses operating within the health care facility. As Di Frances (2002) indicated, the downside to downsizing is the fact that as a process it creates distrust and low morale among staff, not an environment to promote efficiency and greater work outcomes. Whi le Mr. Hudson may want to expand roles and employ the use of organizational report cards to monitor performance, as a result of improving quality of care, retrenchment may not, according to the aforementioned arguments, be the best way of dealing with the problems or securing the future of Seven Seas Memorial. While with continued financial constraints it may inevitably come down to re-engineering or downsizing the work force, the potential negative impacts needed to be assiduously guarded against. Having decided on the merits of delaying retrenchment as the first option to save cost, there is need to improve the flow of clients through the facility and by extension the clinics that serve the facility. This move allows for the program to care for more clients without actually lowering quality, hiring more providers, or increasing staff hours. The example of what obtained at a clinic in Guatemala providing maternal and child health services can be examined. They were able to improve client flow after a self-assessment by staff and a survey of clients. It was identified that clients used to wait, have a pre-visit discussion, return to the waiting room, see the provider, return to the waiting room, and then have a post-visit discussion, a process that was not only time consuming but also made the operations inefficient. By improving the flow of clients to have them wait just once and receive all services in one visit with one provider allowed staff to process 33% more clients. Tha t move allowed the facility to meet the needs of the clients more efficiently. In the given case study, there are six clinics attached to the health care facility. These clinics, as is often seen in many developing countries, serve the underprivileged and the underserved. The Brundtland (1987) report describes sustainable development as development that will not impede the ability of future generations to meet their needs and enjoy a comparable or even better quality of life. Mowforth Munt (2003:232) argue that sustainability is considered a contested concept, a concept that is socially and politically constructed and reflects the interest and values of those involved. Regardless of the definition attached to it, or the constructs under which it operates there is a need to ensure that an innovative way to address the issue of providing a sustainable health service be employed in the situation involving the clinics. The structure and scope of the clinics can be revisited to ensure that they are most cost effective. The use of the concept of a mobile health clinic is such a way to cut cost, continue to provide the service and doing so in a cost effective manner. Mobile clinic services can be structured in such a way that the services continue to be pro vided for free on a walk-in or appointment basis, where the mobile travels to low-income or underserved communities twice per week. They are able to rotate and maximize staff use as well as continue to provide the service that the stationed clinic provided. The added benefit it that instead of six physical buildings two mobile facilities can be established. Oriol et al. (2009) argues that the use of mobile health clinics provides an alternative into the healthcare system for the medically disenfranchised. They go on to further define that group as those who are undernourished, underinsured and do not trust the healthcare system. For them mobile units serve the purpose of providing triage into mainstream healthcare for the underserved. There has been established precedence for the use of mobile clinics that provide the specific care that the community based clinics provided. Edgerley (2007), in a study looked at whether the use of a community mobile health van in an underserved population allowed for earlier access to prenatal care and increased the rate of adequate prenatal care, as compared to prenatal care initiated in community clinics. Their findings were able to confirm that the use of the mobile health van not only increased early access to adequate prenatal care in these communities but was able to reduce the barriers of accessing care; barriers such as the lack of insurance, inability to meet costs, transportation, language, and the need for an appointment. Their study successfully showed that the use of a community mobile health van to provide prenatal care may be one way of cutting down restricting community clinics and cutting on operating costs. That initiative is not isolated to just prenatal clinics but could be employed for clinics providing other types of services such as HIV treatment and testing. A forty-foot primary health care clinic on wheels was used in Kentucky. Staffing was made up of a medical director, a social worker, a nurse practitioner and specialty physicians that are rotated, (www.hhnmag.com, 2006). The question is, how cost effective is such a service as opposed to community based clinics. Oriol et al. (2009) calculated in their study the return on investment of mobile healthcare. In their findings they were able to elucidate a mobile clinic that had been serving the medically disenfranchised in Boston was able to have a return investment of thirty-six dollars ($36) for every one dollar ($1) invested into the programme. If such a venture were to be employed at Seven Seas Memorial hospital, not only would it save and recover cost on the six clinics that currently exist but it would get an opportunity to see returns on investment, while keeping the politicians satisfied. One of the primary triggers to rising cost of health care, and by extension, hospital operating cost, is the rising health expenditures for costly new technologies. Jones (2005) argues that rising health care cost may be a natural reflection of economic growth. He goes on to postulate that as we get richer, one of the most valuable and productive opportunities for our spending is to purchase better health and longer lives. Other factors such as aging populations and rising cost of health insurance that were directly influenced by the discovery and use of novel and expensive medical technologies. The inventions of MRIs and CAT scans as well as newer drugs meant that if hospitals are to remain competitive they had to spend money on the delivery of such services. Basch (1999) warns that there is a need in developing countries to ensure that if they are to be not only efficient, but also cost effective, there is the inherent need to keep cost down. As such it is not always possible to pu rchase every, or even most of the newer medical technological equipment that private facilities could offer in a market driven health care system. The purchase and use of generic drugs can significantly reduce the cost of health care, as seen in the case of most parts of Africa, (Ford, 2010). This affords them an opportunity to circumvent the chasm that exist between the prices mandated by the pharmaceutical giants that develop the drugs in the industrialized world and the ability of developing countries, and by extension their people, to afford them. Further to that another way to combat cost would be to encourage programmes to buy supplies in bulk. There exist many procurement agents that allow health care facilities to merge their orders in an effort to qualify them for volume discounts from manufacturers, even as they ensure that the quality of the products. Further to that health care facilities that are facing budget constraints or that simply wish to be more cost effective in their operations can adjusting procurement to match demand. They are able to do this by monitoring use via a logistics management system. This syst em of operation will allow them to identify changes in demand and in the method mix and as a result will prevent programmes and sectors from overstocking. Further to that health care facilities could seek to set up services in existing buildings and share facilities with other health services. Meeting rising demand efficiently The market for costly medical equipment is limited in most developing countries, and many hospitals, especially public facilities are unable to afford them, (Ford, 2010). He goes on to note that the demand for high-cost medical equipment will continue to rise in developing countries, largely due in part to the need for patient monitoring and diagnostic equipment. He cautions that in many public facilities in the developing world, health care facilities may also lack the expertise to operate as well as maintain such equipment and so should limit such purchases. The lack of technical support from suppliers leads to chronic equipment failure. In this case health care facilities, to make them more competitive with the facilities that can offer such specialized care should focus of being recognized for a particular product or brand. There is a plethora of information on branding in the marketing literature. Branding is defined by the American Marketing Association (2005) as: A name, term, sign symbol or design or a combination of these, intended to identify the goods or services of one seller or group of sellers and to differentiate them from those of competitors. `(p.28) Kotler and Gertner (2002; 65) postulate that brands not only, `differentiate products and represent a promise of value but also incite beliefs, evoke emotions and prompt behaviours`. By branding his facility Mr. Hudson is able to incite confidence in clients of his facilitys ability to deliver on that service for which it is known. Muhammad Yunus, is cited as saying, poor people need health insurance, they deserve it and it can be done, (Ford, 2010). That saw the birth of the concept of micro-insurance in South Asia, where the very poor are now able to purchase life insurance as well as healthcare insurance in return for a relatively small monthly payment. The International Labour Organization (2005) postulate that countries need to continue to fight against social exclusion and poverty in health and can do so by shifting focus to social health insurance. They argue that apart from tax-funded health care as obtains for formal economy workers and their families, social health insurance is the other major concept when it comes to health protection. For them, social health insurance seeks to include informal economy workers and their families as well as the poor. What obtains is that affiliates of such a scheme are able to contribute according to their financial ability, rather than according to their current health condition. Financial resources are pooled and benefit all members of the system in case of illness. A purely market-oriented approach to health insurance will exclude the poor and as a result would not work. Other countries are able to offer a more elaborate and detailed plan to deal with insurance and the provision of governm ent funded coverage. Singaporeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.

Attention Deficit Disorder :: essays research papers fc

Attention Deficit Disorder   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For centuries children have been grounded, beaten, or even killed for ignoring the rules or not listening to what they're told. In the past it was thought these †bad† kids were the products of bad parenting, bad environment, or simply being stubborn, however it is now known that many of these children may have had Attention Deficit Disorder, or A. D. D., and could've been helped. A. D. D. is a syndrome that affects millions of children and adults in the United States and is a very frustrating and confusing syndrome that often goes undiagnosed. While there is no clear-cut definition of A. D. D., it's known that it's a genetic disorder that affects males more often than females, in a 3:1 ratio, and is marked by a classic triad of symptoms, which are impulsivity, distractibility, and hyperactivity (Hallowell 6). There are two general types of A. D. D., the stereotypical, high-energy, hyperactive group, and the less known underactive ones that often daydream and are never mentally present anywhere. Typically, people with A. D. D. are very likable and are usually very emphatic, intuitive, and compassionate, however they have very unstable moods that can range from an extreme high to an extreme low instantly, for no apparent reason. Usually, they procrastinate often and have trouble finishing projects, while conversely, they can hyperfocus at times and accomplish tasks more quickly and efficiently than a normal person could. Often they have short tempers and lack the impulse to stop themselves from blowing up over minor details (Hallowell 10). Although A. D. D. has just recently been discovered and there is still relatively little known about it, it has an interesting history. In 1902, George Frederic Still first thought that the dilemma of problem children was a biological defect inherited from an injury at birth and not the result of bad parenting. In the 1930's and '40's stimulant drugs were first used to successfully treat many behavior problems due partly to Still's hypothesis. In 1960, Stella Chess further boosted research in the field by writing about the â€Å" hyperactive child syndrome.† She stated that the behavior problems weren't a product of injury at birth, but instead were inherited genetically. Finally, in 1980, the syndrome was named A. D. D., due in large part to Virginia Douglas' work to find accurate ways to diagnose it (Hallowell 12). Formally, A. D. D. comes in two types: A. D. D. with hyperactivity and A. D. D. without hyperactivity (Hallowell 9). However there are several other subtypes that are used to diagnose the syndrome and aren't formally recognized.

How to Train your Dragon Essay -- Film Review, Vikings

In the film, How to Train Your Dragon, the Vikings are at war, fighting for their institutions and peace from their existential threat, the Dragons. The Vikings are in a society in which the institutions reflect their historical struggles and have shaped them to be close-minded to any peaceful interaction with Dragons. Thus, in How to Train Your Dragon, the institutions that the Vikings had, represented what Rousseau saw as being a society with a self-interest social contract of the majority. This causes estrangement between their civilization and the Dragons. The Vikings eventually form a new social contract, in which the Vikings and Dragons represent Rousseau's general will of equality as rationally as possible given the Dragons are not on the same intellect level. The Vikings formed a society that’s institutions caused a loss in compassion and was focused on self-interest. Institutions being: â€Å"The organizational structure through which political power is exercised† (116). Rousseau believed â€Å"that all of society, not just political society, is corrupt† (58). This moral corruption that exists is caused by the formation of institutions that set the basis for a group identity and beliefs, the Vikings. Group identity is, â€Å"the degree to which members identify with a group† (56). This identity leads to an estrangement among those who are outsiders. The institutions promote the use of collective action: â€Å"A coordinated group activity designed to achieve a common goal that individuals acting on their own could not otherwise attain† (42). This collective action is the Vikings pursue to destroy the Dragon population. The Vikings view the Dragons as â€Å"pest† who steal their food and destroy t heir land (How to Train Your Dragon). So, the i... ...tutions it creates â€Å"makes people focus on their individual desires, robs them of the compassion, and promotes inequality† (58). The estrangement that grew between the Dragons and Vikings is proved to be caused by the formation of the society’s institutions because they destroyed the image of the Dragons, and set the social expectations that one must do to be part of the Viking’s cultural identity. The friendship that grew between Hiccup and Toothless destroyed the beliefs and practices of the Vikings institutions, which believed dragons were only evil and must be destroyed. This destruction of the institutions creditability led to the new social contract between the Dragons and Vikings. This represented what Rousseau believed to be a â€Å"perfect world† of which the general will is the sovereign and is â€Å"a government that rules for everyone at nobody’s expense† (58).

The Partial Responsibility of the Witches in William Shakespeares Macb

It is the purpose of this assignment to explore whether the witches influenced Macbeth sufficiently to cause him to commit murder, treason and regicide, or whether Macbeth was capable of committing these crimes on his own and the witches only made this happen a little earlier and a little more certainly. We will also explore the Elizabethan audience, their superstitions, and how they would react to the character of the witches as seen in Macbeth. Historically, the witches have been seen as evil beings that gain evil powers from the devil to use during their lifetime, in return for their souls when they die. In the United Kingdom, man's belief in witches and the supernatural was very strong during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Laws were passed by Henry VIII, Elizabeth I and James I prohibiting witchcraft and making the practise punishable by death. Witches were used as scapegoats in Elizabethan society. During the years 1580-90 there was a famine and rebellion throughout the land, 160 witch trials took place in south-east England alone. In the years 1620-30, there was relatively little famine only 25 trials took place, the Civil War then broke out in 1642, the number of trials rocketed to 75. If the crops failed or if an animal was sick, people would automatically suspect that a witch was involved because the people at this time had very little medical or scientific knowledge to explain these occurrences. The majority of witches executed were old women who lived alone, if they kept any sort of animal for company, e.g. a cat, then people could claim that the animal was a "familiar", an evil spirit given to .. ...esponsible and we see these traits at work after Act 4, Scene 1, when his "boundless ambition" and the influences of the witches' apparitions make him engage in a final battle between the two armies of good and evil at the end of the play. The Elizabethan audience would have hated the witches, partly because they would attribute any misfortunes in their own lives to the actions of similar beings. Shakespeare chose to use the witches in this way for two reasons. Firstly, the audience's fear and superstition about witches would mean that there was little need to develop their characters further than evil beings, because the people would already know a lot about them, and secondly because of how fervently James I not only believed in witches, but believed that they were the cause of all the suffering in his kingdom.

Bio Lab

The reactions and Results of Using Enzyme Turnip Root Peroxidase Lab results from: Andrew Compton, Mickey. Results published 9/29/2012. TA: In this series of laboratory experiments, my lab partner and I were to conduct an experiment about the oxidation rate of the enzyme peroxidase in the presence of its substrate guiacol. Also we used other substrates, such as hydroxylamine an enzyme inhibitor, to observe the weather the reaction rate was slowed down, sped up, or stopped reactions all together.These results were recorded by taking the materials in a test tube, then inserting them into a spectrophotometer to record the oxidation (intensity of color change from clear to reddish-brown) over a course of two minutes to observe color change. After all of the experiments that we ran we could conclude the enzyme oxidation rate (mmoles/min) depending on the amount of each product that was used in a single cubit test tube. The following materials and Concepts were used to achieve oxidized/non -oxidized guaiacol: Boiled peroxidase (show the results of denatured enzymes/proteins when guaiacol is added) * Guaiacol (toxic substrate, common byproduct of cellular respiration) * Hydroxylamine (an extremely toxic carcinogen that is an enzyme inhibitor to peroxidase) * Peroxidase (enzyme from Turnip Root) * PH buffer of PH? * Spectrophotometer (record results of oxidation rate over two minutes. The main objective of this lab was to observe the activity of enzyme peroxidase in real time under different experimental conditions. To see how peroxidase reacts with its substrate guaiacol under different conditions.We measure the amount of substances per test tube and then combine all of them together. Each test tube contains a measured amount of any listed substances including H? O. Each measured amount of peroxidase along with its substrate guaiacol, and other listed substances will show how actively the enzyme oxidizes the substrate. To measure the amount of oxidized substrate (amoun t of Hydrogen and electrons removed from guaiacol). As the measured substances are quickly and properly added to the test tubes, the test tube is then quickly inserted into the spectrophotometer.Then the results of oxidized guaiacol was measured and recorded over a course of two minutes. This allows us to digitally use precise measurements on how intense the color oxidation has become. Peroxidase, a common enzyme within many forms of life, helps catalyze the detoxification reaction of H? O?. H? O? is a common toxic byproduct of cellular respiration. One such substrate of H? O? is guiacol, a compound that my partner and I used during this experiment. As a result of the guiacol being oxidized, a reddish-brown color is formed indicating oxidized guaiacol has been formed.However, if a substrate inhibitor such as hydroxylamine inhibits the guaiacol by competing for the activation site most likely preventing color change. Therefore, depending on the amount of peroxidase, hydroxylamine, an d guaiacol in a cuvette, it will determine activity of guaiacol oxidation. Each experiment required a specific amount of substances within a cuvette. After each test tube is filled with all of the samples, the cuvette is immediately covered with perafilm and inserted in the spectrophotometer to be recorded for guaiacol oxidation rate over two minutes (A/min).Once the (A/min) was recorded, those results were then calculated to find the graph equation of reactions per minute. By finding the equation we took the change in 20 seconds multiplied by 3(seconds) in order to give us our results on graphs. Experiment one was to measure the oxidation depending on the concentration of peroxidase in five separate cuvettes. Also, it was to see what the effects of a concentrated amount of denatured enzymes (boiled enzyme) has on its substrate in a separate cuvette. The enzyme solutions were prepared as described on page 5 of the Lab Handout. Experiment two was to measure the effect of pH on peroxi dase activity.Using buffers pH3, 5, 7, and 9 the same amount of water, enzymes, and substrate was added to each solution. The amount of each substance is given on page 6 of the lab handout. Experiment three was to measure the effect of substrate concentration instead of peroxidase concentration from experiment one. Four test tubes are to each have different concentrations of guaiacol to see how much oxidation occurs. The amount of each substrate is given in page 7 of the lab manual. The fourth experiment required the results of oxidation levels with the presence of hydroxylamine. It was to dd specific amounts of inhibitor hydroxylamine to two cuvettes in given amounts. Ex1 test tube| 1| 2| 3| 4| 5| A/min| 0. 816| 0. 039| 1. 65| 0. 594| 0. 606| ?L Enzyme| 150| 0| 350| 50| 25| Experiment one shows that, as the enzyme concentration is increased, in A/Min. Meaning the more the enzyme the more oxidation that tends to occur. Ex 2 test tube| 6| 1| 7| 8| pH| 3| 5| 7| 9| A/min| 0. 093| 0. 81 6| 0. 672| 0. 021| Experiment two shows what rate of activity is shown with different levels of pH. The graph concludes that the neutral pH of 7 shows the optimal rate of A/min oxidation. Ex 3 Test tube| 1| 9| 10| 11| 12|A/min| 0. 816| 0. 729| 0. 516| 0. 315| 1. 551| substrate ? L| 500| 300| 200| 100| 1000| In experiment three, guaiacol concentration is changed to show the different amounts of oxidation reactions or A/min. The graph concludes that cuvette twelve that contains the highest concentration of substrate. Will create the highest amount of oxidation reactions. Ex4 Test tube| 13| 14| 1*| A/min| 1. 473| 1. 758| 0. 816| Inhibitor| 500| 100| 0| Experiment number four was supposed to show the negative effect of an inhibitor on an enzyme. The experiment shows invalid results. However, if the results were accurate, the 500?L concentration of hydroxylamine should have produced the least amount of a/min. The main objective within the experiments is to determine the activity rate of oxidation. With the instructions given, we are to predict how each reaction will occur. Weather there be a small amount of reactions, major amounts of reactions or none at all. In experiment one our results showed that the higher concentration of an enzyme the higher the activity of reactions occurred with the substrate. The experiment was to show if the concentration of enzyme would have a major effect in reaction activity if the amount of substrate stayed the same.From the results, you can clearly see that the enzyme activity was at its most optimal when at 200uL. However, the denatured enzymes had hardly any activity because they aren’t natured proteins. Also, cuvette 3 showed that even with an extremely high concentration of enzyme it still does not have as high of activity rate because of the chances it will combine with its substrate is low because of the amount of H2O. Experiment two was to see what level of pH buffer was the most optimal for enzyme activity with its s ubstrate. The results of the experiment showed that the enzyme was most optimal at pH 7.Since pH 7 is a neutral pH, it shows that the other pH’s that are basic or acidic tend to hinder the activity of the enzyme activity. Weather donating H+ or adding H+. Experiment three was the opposite of experiment one. It was to see what the effects of substrate concentration had on peroxidase activity. From the spectrophotometer results, the most optimal activity rate occurred with 1000uL of substrate. With cuvette twelve being the highest amount of activity, this shows that the more substrate you have creates an even faster rate of activity with the same amount of enzyme in any cuvette.The more substrate the more of a chance there is to react with the enzyme. Experiment four was the only one containing peroxidase’s competitive inhibitor hydroxylamine. Hydroxylamine is an inhibitor therefore it is supposed to either stop or slow the activity rate of enzymes. Cuvette 13 had a high er concentration of hydroxylamine. Therefore, the higher concentration of hydroxylamine the less enzyme oxidation activity is occurring, and more competitive inhibitors are attaching to peroxidase. Overall, these experiments show what amounts of concentrations have on enzyme oxidation activity upon its substrate, what temperature/pH is ctivity most optimal in, and what shows how much an inhibitor can affect an enzymes reactivity rate. With increasing enzyme concentration, there was more of a chance for it to come into contact with its substrate therefore increasing activity. However, enzyme activity will slowly diminish once the substrate has been oxidized. On the other hand, if you have an extreme amount of substrate. The experiment shows that the reaction rate is much higher due to the amount of oxidation occurring. These experiments had to be done a few times to receive valid results.The spectrophotometer had varying A/min and the test called for constant changes in variation of substance measurements to receive valid results. Also, the whole laboratory experiment for experiment number four was invalid. The hydroxylamine was tainted and therefore unable to inhibit peroxidase. Therefore, giving invalid results. In this lab, we investigated how much substrate and enzyme concentration affected the rate of oxidation reaction. We investigated what the optimal pH was for basic enzyme activity/guaiacol oxidation, and what happens when an inhibitor is added to an even solution of enzyme and substrate.We can conclude that substrate and enzyme concentrations are most optimal when one is much higher than the other. However, higher substrate concentration showed that the activity is higher due to the likelihood of reactions with its enzyme. Also, even amounts of enzymes and substrate shows highest activity rates when at a neutral pH instead of in a more basic or acidic solution. The enzyme inhibitors clearly show the slowing of activity rate when more of it is applied to a solution of enzymes and substrate.The relationships of all of these procedures was to show us under what conditions does the oxidation of guaiacol from enzymes become most optimal, and what has the highest reactivity rates. References Campbell, N and Reese, J. B (2006) Biology, p. 142-149, Pearson/Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco CA Marrs, K (2007) K101 Laboratory Manual, Ex. 5 â€Å"Characterization of Turnip Root Peroxidase† KhanAcademy (2012) â€Å"Oxidation and reduction cellular respiration† http://www. khanacademy. org/science/biology/cellular-respiration/v/oxidation-and-reduction-in-cellular-respiration.

Cooperative Learning for Positive Interdependence

The Effectiveness of using Cooperative Learning in Enhancing Reading Comprehension for English for Communication II students in Universiti Utara Malaysia. Chapter 2: Literature Review 1. John Myers (Cooperative Learning Vol 11 #4 July 1991) points out that the dictionary definitions of â€Å"collaboration†, derived from its Latin root, focus on the process of working together; the root word for â€Å"cooperation† stresses the product of such work. 2.According to Ted Panitz (1996), he summarize from Johnson, Johnson & Smith (1991) the six principles of their definition of a new paradigm of teaching and define cooperation is a structure that was designed to help and guide the specific of product or aims through people that working together in a group. 3. According to Skinners, et. al (2001), cooperative learning is also one of approach under The Communicative Approach where it involves a group of learners been instructed by one teacher when they are working together to co mplete the task instead of competitively working on it. . Weidner (2003,p. 29) states that cooperative learning is a special form of group teaching which accentuates and structures social processes in learning and makes them a subject of discussion. 5. â€Å" Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups os that students work together to maximize their own and other’s learning† (Johnson, Johnson & Holubec, 1998,p. 15) 6. Robert Slavin (1987), suggested that cooperative learning occurs when instructional methods enable students to work and learn in small heterogeneous – ability groups.When this happens, cooperative learning is able to lead students into the social power of learning (Zemelman, Baniel & Hyde, 1993) 7. Roger T. and David W. Johnson (1994), says that even though these three interaction patterns are not equally effective in helping students learn concepts and skills, it is important that students learn to interact effectively in each o f these ways. Students will face situations in which all three interaction patterns are operating and they will need to be able to be effective in each.They also should be able to select the appropriate interaction pattern suited to the situation. An interpersonal, competitive situation is characterized by negative goal interdependence where, when one person wins, the others lose. 8. Borchmann & Kirchmann (2006), found that there 5 basic elements in cooperative learning which is interpersonal and small group skills, face to face interaction, individual and group accountability, positive interdependence and group processing. 9. Cowie and Rudduck, (1988, p. 0), state that cooperative learning offers a view of learning which is socially based. 10. Artzt and Newman(1990), define that cooperative learning is an activity involving a small group of learning who work together as a team to complete a task or accomplish a common goal. 11. Davidson (1990) says that cooperative learning is a ta sk of group discussion and resolution (if possible) requiring face to face interaction, an atmosphere of cooperation and mutual helpfulness and individual accountability. 12.Spencer, Kegan (1990), provided as definition of collaborative learning by looking at general structures which can be applied to any situation. He defines collaborative learning as the structured approach to collaborative learning which is based on the creation, analysis and systematic application of structures or content- free ways of organizing social interaction in the classroom. 13. Goodsell, Maher and Tinto (1992) describe cooperative learning as a working in groups of two or more mutually searching for understanding, solutions or meanings or creating a product. 4. O’Donnell (2002) is that this cooperative method enhances social interaction that is important for learning because higher mental functions, such as reasoning, comprehension and critical thinking, originate in social interactions and are t hen internalized by individuals. 15. From Collins Online Dictionary 10th Edition, reading comprehension is a text that students use to help them improve their reading skills by reading and answering questions relating to the text. Sometimes, used as a test or examination of reading skills.A reading comprehension can be in the students own or another language. 16. According to Snow, Catherine E (2002), in her report entitled ‘Reading For Understanding; Towards an R&D Program in Reading Comprehension†, defines reading comprehension as the â€Å"process simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language†. 17. Aarnoutse, Van den Bos,&. Brand-Gruwel, 1998; Jenkins et al. , (2003), believe that vocabulary knowledge, fluency, word recognition, and listening comprehension are necessary skills for reading comprehension. 18. s a process that requires how to decode through the development of an extensive repertoire of sight words, learning the meanings of vocabulary words encountered in the texts, and learning how to abstract meaning from text. It represents how well readers understand literal comprehension which concentrates on explicit meaning and inferential comprehension which concentrates on implicit meaning in the reading text. 19. Pressley (2000), states that the development of comprehension skills is a long term developmental process which depends on language and text experiences from early stage of life.Learning how to decode and learning how to abstract the meanings of vocabulary words are commonly encountered in texts. 20. Tahir, (1988, p. 24), â€Å"Reading comprehension involves visual mechanical skills of recognition, remembering of meaning of words, integrating grammatical and semantic clues and relating to the reader’s own general knowledge and the knowledge of the subject being read†. 21. Daniel E. Himes (2007), in his article entitled â€Å"How to Improve Reading Comprehension†, he supports that cooperative learning is one of the method to improve reading comprehension. 2. Erly Wahyuni (2006) in his journal article entitled â€Å"The Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning Technique in Increasing the Students’ Comprehension of Literary Texts† said that the learners’ responses to the cooperative learning in literary text was good and interesting as they were able to discuss the literary text together. 23. Kassim Shaaban (2007,) from his article â€Å"An Initial Study of the Effects of Cooperative Learning on Reading Comprehension, Vocabulary Acquisition, and Motivation to Read† that cooperative learning improves learners’ motivation to read. Cooperative Learning for Positive Interdependence The Effectiveness of using Cooperative Learning in Enhancing Reading Comprehension for English for Communication II students in Universiti Utara Malaysia. Chapter 2: Literature Review 1. John Myers (Cooperative Learning Vol 11 #4 July 1991) points out that the dictionary definitions of â€Å"collaboration†, derived from its Latin root, focus on the process of working together; the root word for â€Å"cooperation† stresses the product of such work. 2.According to Ted Panitz (1996), he summarize from Johnson, Johnson & Smith (1991) the six principles of their definition of a new paradigm of teaching and define cooperation is a structure that was designed to help and guide the specific of product or aims through people that working together in a group. 3. According to Skinners, et. al (2001), cooperative learning is also one of approach under The Communicative Approach where it involves a group of learners been instructed by one teacher when they are working together to co mplete the task instead of competitively working on it. . Weidner (2003,p. 29) states that cooperative learning is a special form of group teaching which accentuates and structures social processes in learning and makes them a subject of discussion. 5. â€Å" Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups os that students work together to maximize their own and other’s learning† (Johnson, Johnson & Holubec, 1998,p. 15) 6. Robert Slavin (1987), suggested that cooperative learning occurs when instructional methods enable students to work and learn in small heterogeneous – ability groups.When this happens, cooperative learning is able to lead students into the social power of learning (Zemelman, Baniel & Hyde, 1993) 7. Roger T. and David W. Johnson (1994), says that even though these three interaction patterns are not equally effective in helping students learn concepts and skills, it is important that students learn to interact effectively in each o f these ways. Students will face situations in which all three interaction patterns are operating and they will need to be able to be effective in each.They also should be able to select the appropriate interaction pattern suited to the situation. An interpersonal, competitive situation is characterized by negative goal interdependence where, when one person wins, the others lose. 8. Borchmann & Kirchmann (2006), found that there 5 basic elements in cooperative learning which is interpersonal and small group skills, face to face interaction, individual and group accountability, positive interdependence and group processing. 9. Cowie and Rudduck, (1988, p. 0), state that cooperative learning offers a view of learning which is socially based. 10. Artzt and Newman(1990), define that cooperative learning is an activity involving a small group of learning who work together as a team to complete a task or accomplish a common goal. 11. Davidson (1990) says that cooperative learning is a ta sk of group discussion and resolution (if possible) requiring face to face interaction, an atmosphere of cooperation and mutual helpfulness and individual accountability. 12.Spencer, Kegan (1990), provided as definition of collaborative learning by looking at general structures which can be applied to any situation. He defines collaborative learning as the structured approach to collaborative learning which is based on the creation, analysis and systematic application of structures or content- free ways of organizing social interaction in the classroom. 13. Goodsell, Maher and Tinto (1992) describe cooperative learning as a working in groups of two or more mutually searching for understanding, solutions or meanings or creating a product. 4. O’Donnell (2002) is that this cooperative method enhances social interaction that is important for learning because higher mental functions, such as reasoning, comprehension and critical thinking, originate in social interactions and are t hen internalized by individuals. 15. From Collins Online Dictionary 10th Edition, reading comprehension is a text that students use to help them improve their reading skills by reading and answering questions relating to the text. Sometimes, used as a test or examination of reading skills.A reading comprehension can be in the students own or another language. 16. According to Snow, Catherine E (2002), in her report entitled ‘Reading For Understanding; Towards an R&D Program in Reading Comprehension†, defines reading comprehension as the â€Å"process simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language†. 17. Aarnoutse, Van den Bos,&. Brand-Gruwel, 1998; Jenkins et al. , (2003), believe that vocabulary knowledge, fluency, word recognition, and listening comprehension are necessary skills for reading comprehension. 18. s a process that requires how to decode through the development of an extensive repertoire of sight words, learning the meanings of vocabulary words encountered in the texts, and learning how to abstract meaning from text. It represents how well readers understand literal comprehension which concentrates on explicit meaning and inferential comprehension which concentrates on implicit meaning in the reading text. 19. Pressley (2000), states that the development of comprehension skills is a long term developmental process which depends on language and text experiences from early stage of life.Learning how to decode and learning how to abstract the meanings of vocabulary words are commonly encountered in texts. 20. Tahir, (1988, p. 24), â€Å"Reading comprehension involves visual mechanical skills of recognition, remembering of meaning of words, integrating grammatical and semantic clues and relating to the reader’s own general knowledge and the knowledge of the subject being read†. 21. Daniel E. Himes (2007), in his article entitled â€Å"How to Improve Reading Comprehension†, he supports that cooperative learning is one of the method to improve reading comprehension. 2. Erly Wahyuni (2006) in his journal article entitled â€Å"The Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning Technique in Increasing the Students’ Comprehension of Literary Texts† said that the learners’ responses to the cooperative learning in literary text was good and interesting as they were able to discuss the literary text together. 23. Kassim Shaaban (2007,) from his article â€Å"An Initial Study of the Effects of Cooperative Learning on Reading Comprehension, Vocabulary Acquisition, and Motivation to Read† that cooperative learning improves learners’ motivation to read.